Phonology

 Phonology is a level of linguistics that studies the sound systems of languages. Phonology is concerned with the range and function of sounds in specific languages, and with rules that can be written to show the types of phonetic relationships that relate and contrast words and other linguistic units. so, it is concerned with the systemetic organization of sounds in spoken languages. 

The broadest aim of phonology is to isolate the distinct thorough interacting pressures that underlie both the cross-linguistically common and language particular sound patterns that our data analyses reveal. Broadly, these pressures derive from speech production and sound perception. it deals with the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds rather than the physical production.

In linguistic theories, phonology is seen in one of two main ways:

a.       As a level of linguistic organization, contrasted with the levels of phonetics, grammar and semantics in the first instance, and

b.        As a component of generative grammar, contrasted with the syntactic and semantic components.

 Within phonology, two branches of study are usually recognized: segmental and suprasegmental. Segmental phonology analyzes speech into discrete segments, such as phonemes. And, supraseg-mental phonology analyzes those features that extend over more than one segment such as stress, tone and intonation.

 Another distinction is made between diachronic and synchronic phonology. The former studies patterns of sound change in the history of language’ where as the later investigates sound patterns regardless of the processes of historical change.

 However, phonology is the study of linguistic sound systems, whereas phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds. phonologists, experts in phonology, investigate the functional properties of speech sounds, phonologists especially explore sound substitutions, that is, the replacement of one speech sound with another, and the functional consequences that  these substitutions have for word meaning.

In order to investigate, analyze, and interpret the various aspects and behaviours of speech sounds in phonetics and phonology, phoneme, phone, and allophone are three basic terms. For better understanding, these terms are compared to parents, children, and siblings, respectively.

 

Phonemes are characterized by distinctive features, which are binary properties:

Major features include:

·        Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate (/b/ = voiced, /p/ = voiceless)

·        Place of articulation: Where the sound is produced (e.g., bilabial, alveolar)

·        Manner of articulation: How the airflow is shaped (e.g., stop, fricative, nasal)

Languages have rules that describe how phonemes behave in different contexts. These include:

Assimilation

Assimilation refers to the changes in pronunciation, which takes place under certain circumstances at the ends and the beginning of words when occurring in connected speech or in compounds. For example, in isolation, the words ‘is’ and ‘she’ are pronounced [iz] and [∫I] respectively, but in connected speech, they are often pronounced differently. Another example: input → [ɪnpʊt] becomes [ɪmpʊt] in casual speech.

Dissimilation

Sounds become less similar.

• Rare, but found in some dialectal or historical changes.

Insertion (Epenthesis)

• Adding a sound.
• Example: athlete → [æθəlit] in some dialects.

Deletion (Elision)

Elision stands for sounds disappearing under certain circumstances in fluent and rapid speech.

Stress

Stress is believed to depend on the speaker’s using more muscular energy than 13 use for stressed syllable. All stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, and that is prominence. Mstressed syllables are recognized as stressed because they are more prominent than unstressed syllables. Prominence is produced by four main factors, and they are- loudness, length , pitch and quality.

Tone

Pitch used to distinguish meaning (common in tonal languages like Mandarin).

Intonation

Intonation refers to the rising and falling pitch in a voice. The changes of pitch often reflect a change in meaning. These constraints vary from language to language. In linguistics, intonation is the variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words; instead, it is used for a range of functions. Though intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, it is important to be aware that functions attributed to intonation such as the expression of attitudes and emotions, or highlighting aspects of grammatical structure.

  In order to investigate, analyze, and interpret the various aspects and behaviours of speech sounds in phonetics and phonology, phoneme, phone, and allophone are three basic terms. For better understanding, these terms are compared to parents, children, and siblings, respectively.

 Phonemes are characterized by distinctive features, which are binary properties:

Major features include:

·        Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate (/b/ = voiced, /p/ = voiceless)

·        Place of articulation: Where the sound is produced (e.g., bilabial, alveolar)

·        Manner of articulation: How the airflow is shaped (e.g., stop, fricative, nasal)

Languages have rules that describe how phonemes behave in different contexts. These include:

Assimilation

Assimilation refers to the changes in pronunciation, which takes place under certain circumstances at the ends and the beginning of words when occurring in connected speech or in compounds. For example, in isolation, the words ‘is’ and ‘she’ are pronounced [iz] and [∫I] respectively, but in connected speech, they are often pronounced differently. Another example: input → [ɪnpʊt] becomes [ɪmpʊt] in casual speech.

Dissimilation

• Sounds become less similar.
• Rare, but found in some dialectal or historical changes.

Insertion (Epenthesis)

• Adding a sound.
• Example: athlete → [æθəlit] in some dialects.

Deletion (Elision)

Elision stands for sounds disappearing under certain circumstances in fluent and rapid speech.

Stress

Stress is believed to depend on the speaker’s using more muscular energy than 13 use for stressed syllable. All stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, and that is prominence. Mstressed syllables are recognized as stressed because they are more prominent than unstressed syllables. Prominence is produced by four main factors, and they are- loudness, length , pitch and quality.

Tone

Pitch used to distinguish meaning (common in tonal languages like Mandarin).

Intonation

Intonation refers to the rising and falling pitch in a voice. The changes of pitch often reflect a change in meaning. These constraints vary from language to language. In linguistics, intonation is the variation of spoken pitch that is not used to distinguish words; instead, it is used for a range of functions. Though intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, it is important to be aware that functions attributed to intonation such as the expression of attitudes and emotions, or highlighting aspects of grammatical structure.